The year 2025 marks the 450th anniversary of the departure of the first Mughal Hajj Caravan for Hijaz (October 1575) from Fatehpur Sikri, the then Mughal capital. Historian Ruby Lal has described the Mughal Caravan as “a Hajj of women, initiated by a woman, and to a large extent organized by women”. She calls it “an unusual happening in the annals of high Mughal history”.
A Pioneering Pilgrimage: The Women of the Mughal Court
The Mughal party was led by Akbar’s paternal aunt, and the author of Humayun Nama, Gulbadan Begum who has personally persuaded Akbar to allow her to go on Hajj. The Mughal Caravan also included several senior members of the Mughal family, namely Gulnar Agha (Babur’s wife), Salima Sultan Begum (Akbar’s wife), Sultanam Begum (the emperor’s aunt and Mirza Askari’s wife), and Akbar’s two cousins, Hajji Begum and Gulzar Begum (daughters of Mirza Kamran). Among the younger members of the Mughal family were Salima Khanam and Umm-i Kulsum Khanam, Gulbadan Begum’s step daughter and granddaughter, respectively. The party also included many reliable servants of the royal family. A large number of attendants and camp followers also accompanied the ladies. The Emperor also appointed Sultan Khwaja Naqshbandi as the Mir-i Hajj (the formal leader) of the party. The aged Rumi Khan, the famous artillery officer of Babur, was also a member of the party, perhaps for his fluency in the Turkish language. Akbar also paid the travelling expenses of numerous other Muslims, Indians as well as Central Asians, who wished to accompany the Caravan for the performance of the Hajj. The Emperor also gave the Mir-i Hajj 600,000 rupees (today’s equivalent of 24 million dollars) in cash and 12,000 khilats (dresses of honour) for distribution among the deserving people of Makkah and Medina along with a substantial amount of money for the construction of a hospice for the Indian pilgrims in Makkah.
The Portuguese Hurdle and a Costly Passage
After a long and tedious journey, the royal caravan reached Surat, known at the time as the gateway to Makkah, in 1576. The royal ladies and their entourage faced a considerable wait in Surat due to the necessity of acquiring a Portuguese Cartaz (license/passport). In the sixteenth century, the Portuguese controlled all the sea routes from India to the Hijaz and other ports of the Arabian peninsula. All commercial and pilgrim ships traveling to these ports were required to procure the Portuguese passport, which came at a significant cost. Failure to procure it exposed them to the severe risk of plunder on the high seas by the Portuguese. Following prolonged negotiations with the Portuguese authorities, the governor of Surat secured a satisfactory agreement. Gulbadan Begum ultimately consented to cede Bulsar, her jagir (land granted by the King) located near the Portuguese stronghold of Daman, to the Portuguese.
Extended Stay and Shifting Policies
The pilgrims eventually set sail in the imperial ships Salimi and Ilahi in early 1577. They reached their destination in time to perform the Hajj of 1577. Gulbadan Begum and her companions stayed in the Holy Land for four years, performing the Hajj four times and returned to India in 1581. During their sojourn in the Hijaz, Akbar dispatched four more Hajj Caravans between 1577-1580, along with huge amounts of money for disbursement among the denizens of Makkah and Medina. It is estimated that Akbar sent close to 60 million dollars in today’s currency over those four years. However, in 1581, Akbar abruptly ceased the policy of dispatching Hajj Caravans and charities to the Holy Cities.
The Unspoken Discontent: A Historical Enigma
While Mughal historians have documented the journey of the royal ladies and subsequent Hajj Caravans from India, they have largely omitted details regarding the activities of the royal ladies and other Indian pilgrims in the Holy Land. These historical accounts are also notably silent on the reasons behind Akbar’s complete withdrawal from the Hijaz after 1581. This silence suggests that an unforeseen event or circumstance may have occurred, leading to the abrupt suspension of the annual Hajj Caravans to Makkah.
Unraveling the Mystery: Ottoman Archival Revelations
This historical mystery is unraveled by examining a set of six documents that I discovered in the course of my research in the Turkish National Archives in Istanbul. These documents are copied in the most important series of documents preserved in the archives. Known as Muhimme-i-Defterleri (Registers of Important Affairs). These registers contain copies of the firmans (Royal Decrees) of the Ottoman sultans addressed to the provincial, military, judicial, and religious officials in all parts of the empire. These six firmans were issued by Sultan Murad III (r. 1574-1595) and span a seven-year period from 1578 to 1585. The first and second firmans, which are practically identical with minor modifications, are addressed to the authorities of the cities of Makkah and Medina. The subsequent three documents are imperial letters written to the Sharif of Makkah. The last document is addressed to the governor of Jeddah.
These documents highlight the activities of the ladies of Akbar’s household as well as a multitude of Indian pilgrims who had arrived with the Mughal Hajj Caravans between 1577-1580, in the Holy Cities. They repeatedly refer to the overcrowding in the Holy Cities owing to the protracted stay of a large number of Indian pilgrims, the shortage of the essential commodities in these cities and the consequent hardship being faced by their residents. These also allude to alleged indulgence of the Indian pilgrims in na-mashru (contrary to the Shariat) activities.
The firmans underscore the serious view Ottoman authorities took of the extended stay of Indian pilgrims and the issues stemming from their reluctance to depart. Sultan Murad III issued firm instructions to the Sharif of Makkah and the authorities of Makkah and Medina, forbidding Indians—including Akbar’s ladies, their servants, and their entourages—from staying longer than necessary after completing the pilgrimage rites. They were also directed to take appropriate measures to prevent anyone from acting in a manner which is contrary to the Shariat. Furthermore, the Sultan objected to the distribution of sadaqat (alms) sent by Akbar in the Haram Sharif and ordered concerned officials to immediately cease dispensing alms.
It is noteworthy that in the sixteenth century, the population of Jeddah, the port closest to Makkah, has been estimated at between 1000 and 1500. During the Hajj the population of the Holy Cities is reported to have swelled to approximately 30,000 but most of the pilgrims used to return to their respective destination after the performance of the Hajj. Needless to say that the Ottoman authorities had a hard time in maintaining the supplies of essential commodities in Makkah and Medina during the Hajj. The protracted stay of a multitude of Indian pilgrims considerably augmented the population of the Holy Cities. The consequent shortage of provisions is not hard to conjecture and the staid reaction of the Ottoman authorities is hardly difficult to understand.
Key Ottoman Firmans: Official Communications
To properly contextualize this episode, I am presenting my English translation of two of the six documents:
Document 1
Muhimme Defterleri, Vol. 39, folio 160, Firman no. 349, Zilhajj 987(February 13, 1587).
Imperial letter to the Sharif of Makkah
The governor general of Egypt, Masih, has sent the register of the district to my court of felicity. It has been reported to me that the alms sent to Makkah by His Excellency Jalaluddin Akbar are being distributed in the Haram Sharif, that the ladies of Akbar and a large number of people who have come from India, along with their numerous followers and appendage, after observing the rites of the Hajj required by the law, are still staying in Makka Sharif and that these people are indulging in certain strange activities. Now the activities contrary to the Shariat in the Haram Sharif are against my noble consent. It is necessary that as soon as this Firman arrives you shall stop the distribution of alms in the Haram Sharif sent by the aforementioned monarch. And you shall not let those who have come from India whether the ladies of the above-mentioned monarch or their servants and appendages stay longer than required after they have performed the rites of the Hajj in accordance with the Shariat. Take appropriate measures to prevent anybody from acting in a manner contrary to the Shariat.
Document 2
Muhimme Defterleri, Vol 43, folio 54, Firman no. 107, 14 Rajab, 988( August 25, 1580)
Order to the Sharif of Makkah Mukarramah
At present several Indian Caravans have arrived in Makkah Mukarramah with the intent of circumambulation of the Kaaba. They have not returned to their native places after performing the rites of the pilgrimage. It has been reported to me that their prolonged stay in Makkah as mujawirs (people who used to stay inside Haram al-Sharif) has led to shortage of provisions and other commodities in the city and that people of Makkah are being subjected to severe hardship. Matters being so our ingenuous imperial letter communicating our disapproval of the arrival of the aforementioned Caravans for pilgrimage, their unwillingness to return to their homes after performing the obligations of the Hajj has already been dispatched. It is imperative that as soon as this Firman arrives, you shall personally look into this matter. You shall not allow those who have accompanied the above mentioned Caravans to reside as mujawirs and dismiss them. Further you shall make arrangements for the return of the pilgrims to their places, so that the means of subsistence of the people of Makkah Muazzama may not be subject to hardship.
The Aftermath: A Damaged Relationship
Abul Fazl has remarked that royal ladies were reluctant to leave the Hijaz, with Khwaja Yahya ultimately persuading them to return in accordance with the emperor’s earnest wish. However, these newly discovered documents suggest that it was not solely Akbar’s desire that compelled the royal ladies to depart Makkah in 1581. Further indignities awaited them; the ladies were reportedly insulted by the governor of Aden during their stop in the city on their journey back to India. The harsh treatment meted out to his ladies and the proscription of his sadaqat in the sacred cities seems to have stung Akbar’s pride considerably and provoked him to stop sending Hajj Caravans and annual subventions to Makkah. Thus, the Hajj Caravan that had departed from Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 with such grand fanfare ultimately concluded on a discordant note, irrevocably damaging the once cordial relations between these two prominent Muslim states of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
